Management's Influence in the Formulation of Accounting Principles

Management's Influence in the Formulation of Accounting Principles
2 DEVELOPMENT OF ACCOUNTING PRINCIPLES IN THE UNITED STATES
Cost accounting emerged in the 19th century as a result of the industrial revolution.
In the last half of the 19th century there was a development in accounting techniques for prepayments and accruals, as a way to enable the calculation of periodic profits.
Late in the 19th and 20th centuries there was a development in the funding report.
In the 20th century there were developments in accounting methods for complex issues, ranging from the calculation of earnings per share, accounting for business calculations, accounting for inflation, long-term rent and pensions, to the important problems of accounting as a new product from financial engineering.
2. 1 Stage of management contributions (1900-1933)
Management's influence in the formulation of accounting principles arose from the increasing number of shareholders and the dominant economic role played by industrial companies after 1900. The main player at that time was the association of professional accountants, the American Institute of Accountants (AIA).
The position of the AIA at the request of the Federal Trade Commission (FTC) is that "there are no sales, interest or administrative costs in the factory overhead". Opponents of the position of the Institute face a statement in the report that says "the calculated interest in production costs is a theory that is unfounded and wrong, and can be said to be impossible (absurd) in practice". Opposing parties also suffered defeat. Another important event at that time was the increasing impact of accounting theory on taxation of operating income. Although the 1913 income law provided the basis for calculating taxable profits on the basis of cash receipts and disbursements, the 1918 Act was the first to recognize the role of accounting procedures in determining taxable profits.

2. 2 stages of institutional contribution (1933-1959)
In 1934, Congress created the SEC with the task of managing a variety of federal investment laws, including the 1933 Securities Act which regulates the issuance of securities in interstate markets and the 1934 Securities Act which regulates securities trading.
After publication by Ripley in an article criticizing reporting techniques as being deceptive, George O. May, a British national, suggested that the American Institute of Certified Public Accountants (AICPA) start a work effort the same as the stock exchange. As a result, the Special Committee of the AICPA in collaboration with the Stock Exchange recommends the following general solutions:
A more practical alternative is to allow each company to freely choose its own accounting methods within ... a very broad range ... but requires disclosure of the methods used and the consistency of their application from year to year.
In addition, the Committee proposes its first official trial to develop generally accepted accounting techniques. Known as "general principles" (board principles).
After the issuance of ASR No. 4 by the SEC, which challenged the accounting profession to provide "substantial support from the authorities" for applicable accounting principles, and increased criticism from the American Accounting Association and its newly formed members, the next Institute in 1938 decided to authorize the Accounting Procedure Committee (CAP Accounting Committee) to announce its decision.

2. 3 Stage of politicization (1973-present)
Limitations held by both professional and management associations in formulating an accounting theory have led to the adoption of a more deductive approach while politicizing the standard setting process - a situation created by the generally accepted view that accounting numbers influence economic behavior and , as a consequence, accounting rules should be made in the political arena.
Since its inception, the FASB has adopted a deductive and quasi political approach in the formulation of accounting principles. What the FASB did got better value, firstly, by efforts to develop a theoretical framework or agreement in accounting, and secondly, with the birth of various interested groups, whose contribution was needed for "general" acceptance of new standards. Therefore, the standard setting process has a political aspect in it.
The process of setting standards can be described as democratic because, like all regulatory bodies, the right of the Council to make regulations will ultimately depend on the approval of the governing party. But because setting standards requires a number of perspectives, it is not appropriate if a standard is set based solely on the representation of the voters. Similarly, the process can be described as legislative because the setting of standards must be deliberated and because all views must be heard. But the standard compilers are expected to be able to represent all voters as a whole and not be representative of a particular group of voters. This process can be described as being political because there is a learning effort related to an attempt to get acceptance of a new standard.

History of Accounting and Its Development

History of Accounting and Its Development
1 EVOLUTION OF ACCOUNTING RECORDING PAIRS
1. 1 Early history of accounting
Various experiments have been carried out to state the location and time of birth of a paired recording system that has produced various scenarios. Most of these scenarios acknowledge the existence of a form of record keeping in most cultures since around 3,000 BC.

C. Littleton listed seven prerequisites for the emergence of systematic bookkeeping:
The Art of Writing, because bookkeeping is essentially a note; Arithmetic (Arithmetic), because the mechanical aspects of bookkeeping contain the existence of a series of simple calculations; Private Property, because bookkeeping is only concerned with the recording of facts about property and ownership rights; Money (Money) is a transaction that has not been completed, because there will be no incentive to make any notes if all exchanges are made on the spot at the same time; Commerce (Commerce), because a local sale alone will not create enough pressure (business volume) to stimulate people to coordinate various thoughts into a system; Capital (Capital), because without trading capital will not mean and giving credit becomes something that is impossible to imagine.
Each of the ancient cultures mentioned above has included these prerequisites, as well as explaining why there has been some sort of bookkeeping in it. If we want to trace this important knowledge (accounting) back to its origin, we will naturally assume the first meeting will be from the first traders; and no one is worthy of claiming that at that time other than the Arabs. The Egyptians, who for some time showed their glory in the world of commerce,
get the thought of carrying out such trade through its interactions with the nation; and, as a consequence, it was from them that the Egyptians had to do a first form of accounting, which, according to common trade methods, was communicated to all the cities in the Middle East. The business of trade, which for every trading city in Europe is connected by the Lombards, also introduces their method of account recording, through the use of paired records; now known as Italian bookkeeping.
This Italian bookkeeping developed, along with the development of trade from the Italian republic and the use of the method of bookkeeping in pairs in the 14th century. The first known pairing book is the bookkeeping of Massari from Genoa, which dates back to 1340.

1. 2 Luca Pacioli's Contributions
The name Luca Pacioli, a priest of the Franciscan order, is generally associated with the introduction of bookkeeping in pairs for the first time. In 1494 he published his book, Summa de Arithmetica Geometria, Proportioni et Proportionalita, in which there are two chapters - de Computis et Scripturis - describing bookkeeping in pairs. He stated that the purpose of bookkeeping was "to provide traders with non-delayed information about the state of their assets and debts". Debit (adebeo) and credit (credito) are used in recording to ensure a paired record. He said, "All records must be in pairs.
That is, if you make a creditor, then you must make a debtor ". Three books are used here: a memorandum, a journal, and a large book. At the same time, given the short life span of business firms, Pacioli suggested the calculation of a period's earnings and book closing. Below are the suggestions given:
It is a good thing to close the book every year, especially if you have a partnership with other parties. Frequent accounting records will extend friendships.

1. 3 Bookkeeping progress in pairs
These developments include the following:
Around the 16th century there were some changes in bookkeeping techniques. A noteworthy change is the introduction of special journals for recording different types of transactions.
In the 16th and 17th centuries there was an evolution in the practice of periodic financial statements. In addition, in the 17th and 18th centuries there was an evolution in the personification of all accounts and transactions, as an attempt to rationalize the debit and credit rules used in accounts that are uncertain in relation and abstract.
The application of a paired recording system is also extended to other types of organizations.
The 17th century also recorded the use of separate inventory accounts for different types of goods.
Starting with the East India Company in the 17th century and then followed by the development of the company, along with the industrial revolution, accounting gained a better status, which was indicated by the need for cost accounting, and the trust given to the concepts of sustainability , periodicity and accruals.
Methods for recording fixed assets evolved in the 18th century.
Until the beginning of the 19th century, depreciation for fixed assets only counted on unsold merchandise.

Accounting is an Information System that Identifies

Accounting is an Information System that Identifies
34. Encylopedia Britannica (1962)
Accounting is a broad term that shows certain theories, assumptions about how to act (behavior), rules of measurement and procedures for gathering and reporting useful information about the activities and objectives of an organization.

35. Sugiri and Riyono (2008: 1)
Accounting is defined as a service activity whose function is to provide quantitative information, specifically relating to finance. The information is expected to be input in the process of making economic and rational decisions.

36. Thomas Sumarsan (2013: 1)
explains that: Accounting is an art to collect, identify, classify, record transactions and events related to finance, so that it can produce information that is financial statements that can be used by interested parties.

37. Winwin yadianti, Ilham Wahyudin (2006: 6-7)
Accounting is an information system that identifies, records, and communicates economic events from an organization to interested parties. From this understanding contained accounting activities, namely:

1) Identifying economic events related to the relevant economic activities of a particular organization. Debt payments, cash repayment payments, credit sales are examples of these economic events.
2) Record the organization's financial activities historically. Recording is carried out systematically, sequentially according to the chronology of events and must be measured in monetary units. In this recording process, economic events are then classified and summarized.
3) Communicating economic events to interested parties in the form of financial statements that contain organizational financial information that can be used as a basis for decision making. One important element in communicating economic events is the ability of accountants to analyze and interpret the information reported.

38. Widjaya Tunggal
"Accounting is often stated as a language of business that is useful for providing information that can be used in the decision making process. This information is data presented / obtained by companies that are financial in nature and stated in monetary terms ".

39. Sofyan Syafri Harahap
 Accounting is the language or business communication tool that can provide information about the financial condition (economy) in the form of financial position, especially in the amount of wealth, debt, and capital of a business and its business results at a time (certain period).

40. Suwardjono
"Accounting is the art of recording, classifying, summarizing transactions, and events, which are financial in an efficient manner and in the form of monetary units, and interpret the results of the process."

41. The Meaning of Financial Accounting According to Martani (2012: 8)
Financial accounting is oriented towards reporting external parties. The diversity of external parties with specific objectives for each party makes the compiler of the financial statements using the principles and assumptions in preparing financial statements.

For this reason, accounting standards are needed that serve as guidelines both by the author and by readers of financial statements. Reports produced from financial accounting in the form of financial statements for general purposes (general purpose financial statement).

42. According to Sudibyo (1987)
Accounting is a technology, so it must be treated as a technology. Technology is used to control natural and social variables to achieve certain better lives.
If accounting is directed to become a theory, then accounting theory should be free from social values and not normative. The theory should not directly affect accounting practices, because the theory does not control theorized variables.

43. In Mautz's view
Accounting is a complete social science, and according to his argument is: "Accounting relates to companies, which of course are social groups. accounting is concerned with transactions and other economic events that have consequences and have an impact on the social relations accounting results

useful and meaningful knowledge for people engaged in activities that have social implications. accounting is essentially mental according to the basics of existing guidelines, accounting is a social science ".

44. According to Wikipedia
Accounting is a measurement, translation, or providing certainty about information that will help managers, investors, tax authorities and other decision makers to make the allocation of decision resources in companies, organizations, and government agencies.

45. Horngern (2000)
According to Horngern (2000) states that accounting is as a process of recording, measuring and delivering economic information so that it can be used as a basis for decision making or policy.

Read Articles About Accounting

Read Articles About Accounting
21. Dr. M. Gede
Accounting is an applied science and the art of recording that is carried out continuously according to the rules and systems, processing and analysis of these records so that a financial report is arranged as an accountability from the leadership of the company and the institution for its performance.

22. Sophar Lumbantoruan (1989)
Accounting is a tool used as a business language. The information it conveys can only be understood if the accounting mechanism has been understood. Accounting is designed so that the recorded transactions are processed into useful information.

23. American Accounting Association (1966)
Accounting is a process of identifying, measuring, recording, and reporting economic (financial) transactions of an organization / entity that is used as information in order to make economic decisions by parties who need them. This understanding can also include analyzing the reports produced by the accounting.

24. Accounting Principles Brord Statement No. 4 (Muhammad, 2002: 10)
Accounting is a service activity, whose function is to provide quantitative information, especially financial in nature about economic entities that are intended to be useful in making economic decisions - making logical choices among alternative actions.

25. West Churman
Accounting is a written experience that is useful for making decisions that occur in a company.

26. Kohler’s Dictionary
Accounting is an art of recording the process of financial transactions.

27. KBBI (Big Indonesian Dictionary)
Accounting is the theory and practice of silverware, including responsibilities, principles, standards, custom (habits), and all its activities; matters relating to accountants; the art of recording and summarizing financial transactions and interpreting the effects of a transaction on an economic unit.

28. Suparwoto L (1990: 2)
Stating that accounting is a system or technique for measuring and managing financial transactions and providing the results of management in the form of information to internal and external parties of the company. This external party consists of investors, government creditors, trade unions and others.

29. According to Kieso, et al. (2016: 2)
The explanation above can be interpreted Accounting consists of three basic activities, namely the identification, recording and communication of economic events of an organization to interested parties. The company identifies economic events according to its business activities and records these events to provide records of financial activities.

The recording is carried out systematically, chronologically for each event, in units of currency. Finally, in communicating the aforementioned collection of information to interested parties in the form of accounting reports or financial statements.

30. Hans Kartikahadi, et al. (2016: 3)
"Accounting is a financial information system, which aims to produce and report relevant information for various interested parties".

From the above definition, it can be concluded that accounting is the process of identifying, recording, and communicating the final results in the form of financial statements that reflect the state of the company to the parties concerned.

31. Wibowo
Accounting is as a procedure of recognizing, recording and correspondence of financial exchanges of an element or organization. This means accounting is an information system that recognizes and records financial transactions and then presented in the financial statements.

32. KAM (1990)
Accounting is an art of recording financial transactions.

33. Dr. M. Gade
Accounting is an applied science and the art of recording that is carried out continuously according to a particular system, processes and analyzes these records so that a financial report can be prepared as a responsibility of the head of the company or institution for its performance.

Understanding of Accounting in General

Understanding of Accounting in General
6. Henry Simamora (2005)
Accounting is the process of measuring the economic activity of an entity in units of money and communicating the results to interested parties.

7. Sofyan Harahap (2005)
Accounting is as a process of identifying, measuring, and delivering economic information as information material in terms of considering various alternatives in drawing conclusions by its users.

8. Zaki Baridwan (2000)
Accounting is a service activity, its function is to provide quantitative data, mainly those of a financial nature, from economic ventures that can be used in making economic decisions in having alternatives in a situation.

9. Suparwoto L
Accounting is as a technique or system for measuring and managing financial transactions and presenting the results of management in the form of information to internal and external parties of the company. External parties include investors, creditors, governments, trade unions and so on.

10. Paul Grady
Accounting is as a body of science and organizational functions systematically, authentic and original in recording, classifying, processing, making summaries, analyzing, interpreting all transactions and events and financial characteristics that occur in the operations of accounting entities with the aim of providing meaningful information needed by management as a report and accountability for the trust it receives.

11. Mulyadi
Accounting functions as a tool to record and present financial reports to facilitate management in managing the company.

12. Littleton (Muhammad, 2002: 10)
Accounting is a comparative calculation of the costs incurred as a business with the achievement of results that are the achievements of the business.

13. Financial Accounting Standars Board (FASB)
Accounting is a service activity whose function is to provide quantitative information which is then used for economic decision making.

14. Charles Thomas Horngren and Walter T. Harrison (Horngren Harrison, 2007: 4)
Accounting is an information system that measures business activities, processes data into reports and communicates the results to decision makers.

15. American Institute of Certified Public Accountants (AICPA)
Accounting is the art of recording, classifying and summarizing in certain ways in terms of monetary, transaction and events which are generally financial in nature including interpreting the results. In a sense, accounting is the art of recording, classifying and compiling a summary of events on financial transactions which are then presented in the financial statements.

16. Abu Bakar A.
Accounting is as a procedure of recognizing, recording and correspondence of financial exchanges of an element or organization. This means accounting is an information system that recognizes and records financial transactions and then presented in the financial statements.

17. Rudianto
Accounting is an information system that produces a financial report to related parties with an interest in economic activities and the condition of a particular business entity.

18. Arnold
Accounting is seen as a system for providing a particular financial information to anyone who makes decisions and who controls them.

19. Warren et al
Accounting in general is an information system that generates a financial report to related parties or interests regarding economic activities and company conditions.

20. Decision of the Minister of Finance of the Republic of Indonesia (NO. 476 KMK. 01 1991)
Accounting is a process of gathering, recording, analyzing, summarizing, classifying and reporting financial transactions from an economic unit to provide financial information for users of reports that are useful for decision making.

Understanding of Accounting According to Experts

Understanding of Accounting According to Experts
Understanding Accounting According to Experts Complete With Its History: Accounting is a process of recording, classifying, summarizing, processing and presenting data, transactions and in events related to finance. Accounting is a process of recording, classifying, summarizing, processing and presenting data, transactions and in financial-related events that can be used by people who use them easily understood in making a decision and other objectives.

Understanding of Accounting in General
Accounting is often referred to as a business language, or more accurately, the language of decision making. The more someone masters this language, the better the person will handle various aspects of finance in his life. The definition of accounting can be formulated through 2 (two) points of view, namely the definition from the point of view of the users of accounting services and the definition from the perspective of the process of its activities.
From the point of view of users of accounting services, accounting can be defined as a scientific discipline and / or service activity that provides information needed to carry out activities efficiently and evaluate the activities of an entity or financial transactions. The usefulness of accounting information is to:
Make effective planning, as well as supervise, and make appropriate economic decisions by management
The responsibility of the entity to investors, creditors, the government, and so on.
If viewed from the perspective of the process of its activities, accounting can be defined as the process of recording, classifying, summarizing, reporting and analyzing the financial data of an entity. From this it can be seen, that accounting is a complex activity, involving a variety of activities, so basically accounting must:

Identify which data is relevant or relevant to the decision to be taken,
Process or analyze relevant data,
Turn data into information that can be used for decision making.
From the above definition, we can simply explain that accounting can produce information that is used by managers to carry out company operations. Accounting also provides information to interested parties to find out the financial performance and condition of the company.

Understanding of Accounting According to Experts
Here Is An Understanding Of Accounting According To Experts.

1. ABP Statement No. 4 in Smith Skousen (1995: 3)
Defining Accounting is a service activity that provides quantitative information, especially those that have the nature of making economic decisions in making decisions that make logical choices among alternative actions.

2. American Accountants Association
Stating that Accounting is a piece, estimation, and reporting of financial data, which allows an assessment and choice to make clear and decisive for individuals who utilize data.

3. Frederich D.S. Choi, Gerhard G. Mueller
Accounting is a process of identifying, measuring and communicating economic information to enable users to make judgments and decisions.

4. Soemarsono S.R (2004)
Accounting is the process of identifying, measuring and reporting economic information to enable clear and explicit assessments and decisions for those who use that information.

5. S. Munawir (2005)
Accounting is an art rather than recording, classifying and summarizing events and events and at least financial nature in the most expeditious way and as directions or expressed in money, as well as interpreting the things that arise from it.

Definition and Function of Financial Accounting

Definition and Function of Financial Accounting
Accounting has a very important role in making a decision, not least in financial accounting which has its own role in making decisions. On this occasion here will review the complete financial accounting ,. Therefore, let us consider the reviews below.

Understanding Financial Accounting According to Experts:
Financial Accounting According to Warren Reeve Fess (2008: 15)
In the book "Introduction to Accounting Accounting", Warren Reeve Feves explains:
"Financial accounting is primarily concerned with the recording and reporting of economic data and activities for a business. Although such reports provide useful information for managers, they are the primary reports for owners, creditors, governmental agencies, and the public. "(2008: 1)
Meaning: Financial accounting is the recording and reporting of data and economic activities of the company. Although the report produces information that is useful for managers, but it is the main report for the owner (owner), creditors, government agencies and the general public. "(2008: 15)

Financial Accounting according to Donald E. Kieso, et al (2008: 2)
In his book "Intermediate Accounting"
Financial accounting is a process that ends in making financial statements concerning the company as a whole for use by both internal parties and external parties. "(2008: 2)

The Meaning of Financial Accounting According to Martani (2012: 8)
Financial accounting is oriented towards reporting external parties. The diversity of external parties with specific objectives for each party makes the compiler of the financial statements using the principles and assumptions in preparing financial statements.
For this reason, accounting standards are needed that serve as guidelines both by the author and by readers of financial statements. Reports produced from financial accounting in the form of financial statements for general purposes (general purpose financial statement).

Definition of Financial Accounting Standards (SAK)
Financial Accounting Standards (SAK) is a framework in the procedure of making financial reports so that uniformity occurs in the presentation of financial statements (Augustyas, 2011).

Financial Accounting Function
In order to know and calculate the profit or loss that has been obtained by the company.
In order to provide information that can be useful for company management.
In order to help determine the rights for each party that has an interest in a company, both internal and external parties.
To supervise and control various kinds of activities that occur in the company.
to help a company achieve its predetermined targets.
Can provide information that can be useful for company management.
Knowing and calculating the profit or loss that has been obtained by the company. To assist a company in achieving its predetermined targets.
Helps to establish the rights for each party that has an interest in a company, both internal and external parties.
To supervise and control various kinds of activities that occur in the company.

The Purpose of Financial Accounting
To provide reliable information about a change in a company's net economic resources arising from an activity in order to make a profit.
Aims to provide a reliable information about assets, liabilities and finally capital.
Aims to help users in estimating a company's potential to generate a profit.
Aims to provide other important information regarding a change in economic resources & obligations such as information about shopping activities.
Aims to disclose other information relating to a financial statement that is relevant to a user's financial statement needs.

Solution to Social Inequality

Solution to Social Inequality
In addition, the Government must also make policies that are outside the community itself. The design of government policies must focus on the following:
Government policy must emphasize the improvement / improvement of village infrastructure, especially in villages where geographical conditions are not favorable.
Access to education, information and free health care must be a priority for the government so that development acceleration can be realized effectively.
The government needs to provide capital assistance for rural communities so that they can have alternative livelihoods, not just rely on the agricultural sector. Capital assistance is certainly very helpful for the community because they can use it to set up a business. These alternative livelihoods can ultimately increase the economic income of the community, especially in rural communities whose land is arid and not promising.
Regarding the political will of the government, segregation or exclusion of rural communities in terms of ethnicity, ethnicity, religion, gender and the like must be abolished.
Some of the above solutions can certainly be an input for the government in making policies, especially related to improving village life standards to be better. Thus, villages that have been synonymous with underdevelopment can gradually experience rapid acceleration into more advanced villages.

Solution and Solution to Social Inequality
World is a large country and one of the countries that has many islands and is located far apart. Social inequality is very likely to occur in World because many remote areas are isolated from the crowd. And World is a country with a very high level of corruption. In the world, World is among the top 5 most corrupt countries. Actually, World is able to become a developed country and a country that is able to improve its people's welfare.
Because World has very rich and abundant natural resources, but why is there still a very striking social gap. This is a big question that needs an answer and a bright spot. In this case it is the task of the current government, how to improve the welfare of society and minimize social inequality. Many things can be done by the government to improve the welfare of the community and solving social inequalities that occur in society.

Efforts must be made by the government to solve the problem of social inequality that occurs in World:
Minimizing (KKN) and eradicating corruption in an effort to improve people's welfare. The government has formed an institution tasked with eradicating (KKN) in World. World has begun to improve itself but in a number of cases the KPK corruption case is still considered to be selective in cracking down on corruption. For example, the case of Century Bank has not found a bright spot and seems to end the case. The government must always improve itself because by minimizing (KKN) what happens is able to improve the welfare of the community with existing funds.
Improve the justice system in World and conduct strict supervision of the legal mafia.
In terms of education must take precedence.
Opening jobs so there is no unemployment.
Eradicate corruption so that no more corruption.
Improve a justice system in World and conduct close supervision of the judicial mafia. so that those who have power are not arbitrary with the people.
There are still many mafia law rampant in World that increasingly make social inequality in World more striking. The current justice is very difficult to enforce how not! A corrupt person is detained but all the facilities are fulfilled in the detention room. Meanwhile, what about the fate of a small community that only steals chickens, for example, they do as they please sometimes they torture with inhumanity. This really shows the social gap in World which is very striking between the rich or those who have the authority between the poor or the poor.

Example of the Gap between Rural-urban Communities

Example of the Gap between Rural-urban Communities
Here are some examples of social inequalities in everyday life:
Corruptors who eat up to billions of rupiah in public money are only detained for 3 years while people who are thieves can be detained for up to a dozen years.
Lack of adequate transportation facilities for people with disabilities.
People who are dressed in expensive and good clothes are treated very well by different servants than ordinary people.

Example of the gap between rural-urban communities
This is caused by various factors, among them are the level of purchasing power of rural communities is lower, uneven education, services are not the same between villages and cities, for example Health. Due to the limited transportation, facilities and infrastructure of the Village is lower than the city, and the lack of employment in Indonesia makes the village intellectuals choose to live and live in the village because of its convenience, even so many people from the area went to Jakarta without any education provision , more and more the city of Jakarta, for example, is becoming increasingly congested.
The gap is also seen from the difference in income per capita in urban and rural areas. Structure of sectoral economic activities that form the basis of household or community production activities, particularly in economic sectors that are export bases with a domestic (domestic) market orientation

Increasing population so it is not balanced with the supply of agricultural land.
The urgency of handicrafts in the village by modern industrial products.
In the village there are not many opportunities to increase knowledge.
Harvest failures caused by various things, such as long drought floods etc., forced the villagers to look for other livelihoods in the city. Most villagers think that in the city there is a lot of work and it is easier to get income
In the city more opportunities to develop a home craft business into the craft industry
Education, especially advanced education, is more in the city and easier to obtain
The city is considered to have a higher level of culture and is a place of association with all kinds of human culture
Cities provide an opportunity to avoid strict social control or to lift themselves from low social positions

Solution to the gap between urban & rural.
Then, is there a solution to the gap between urban & rural? Is that? Of course there is. And that is by increasing the standard of living in the countryside. How is the solution? As described above, it is understandable why inequality is so striking between villages and cities. The backwardness in terms of education, economy, and access to health facilities is not solely caused by socio-cultural factors of the people who strongly hold the principles and culture of kinship and traditions / customs, but if examined more deeply, it is also caused by social factors the politics and geography of regions that are not favorable for rural areas. This condition is certainly a challenge for the village community, also for the government.
Internally rural communities must begin to be open to the outside world, the community must not be allergic to change. Preserving the culture that is owned is certainly very important in order to maintain local wisdom, but the village community must have a clear and measurable mission and vision so that they can take the initiative to change their destiny. Without a change in mind set that has indeed been deeply rooted in the village community, surely they will be difficult to get out of the shackles of backwardness because one of them is the lack of competition between them. Communities that live together with livelihoods that are not much different usually do not have high motivation to compete with each other. Even if there are income inequality among villagers, it is generally not too extreme.

Relating to Culture as a Function of Adaptation

Relating to Culture as a Function of Adaptation
7. Employment
Employment has a huge influence on the community's economy, while the economy becomes a fartor of social inequality. The narrowness of employment in Indonesia makes unemployment very large in Indonesia and is a job for the current government.

Social Inequality As a Social Problem
Social inequality is a state of social imbalance in society that makes a very striking difference. In terms of social inequality it is very striking from various aspects, for example in the aspect of justice can occur. Between the rich and the poor are very distinguished in any aspect, the villagers who migrate in the city are also affected by this, it is true to say that "The rich get richer, the poor get poorer". This ignorance of others is due to the gap that is too striking between the "rich" and the "poor". Many rich people look down on the lower classes, especially if he is poor and also dirty, let alone helping, just watching even they are reluctant.

Social inequalities occur due to several things, namely:
a. Poverty
According to Lewis (1983), a culture of poverty can manifest in various ways
historical context, but more inclined to grow and develop within
a society that has a set of conditions:
The economic system of money, wage labor and the production system for profits remains a high level of unemployment and underemployment for unskilled labor

Low labor costs
The failure of low-income groups to increase social, economic and political organizations voluntarily and on government initiatives
The bilateral family system is more prominent than the unilateral system, and
The strength of a set of values in the ruling class that emphasizes the accumulation of wealth and the possibility of vertical mobility, and the attitude of frugality, as well as the assumption that the low economic status as a result of personal inability or basically low status.
Culture of poverty is not only an adaptation to a set of objective conditions of the wider community, once the culture has grown, it tends to perpetuate itself from generation to generation through its influence on children. Culture of poverty tends to develop when economic and social systems that are multi-layered are damaged or changed, Poverty culture is also a result of colonialism, that is, the economic and social structure of the indigenous people is broken down, while the status of indigenous groups is maintained low, it can also grow in the process of tribal abolition. The culture of poverty tends to be owned by the community as well as lower social, isolated communities, and victims who come from landless agricultural laborers.
According to Parker Seymour and Robert J. Kleiner (1983) the formulation of a culture of poverty includes the understanding that everyone involved in the situation has low aspirations as a form of realistic adaptation.
Some characteristics of poverty culture are:
Fatalism,
Low level of aspiration,
Low willingness to chase the target,
Not seeing personal progress,
Feelings of helplessness / incompetence,
Feelings to always fail,
The feeling of judging one's self negatively,
Choices as a manual worker position, and
Pathetic compromise level.

b. Jobs
Employment has a huge influence on the community's economy, while the economy becomes a fartor of social inequality. The narrowness of employment in Indonesia makes unemployment very large in Indonesia and is a job for the current government.

Impact of social inequality
Positive impact
Relieve stress triggers
Relax both mind and body
Speed up the process of human activity
Causing a more equitable division of labor

Negative impact
Cultivating laziness
Dissatisfaction with something
Easily despair which impedes work mobility
The emergence of social jealousy
Many crimes occur
Example of social inequality

Factors Causing Social Inequality

Factors Causing Social Inequality
4. Demographic Factors
Demographic conditions indicate the level of growth and population structure, education level, health level, differences in employment conditions, as well as all matters relating to the population. Differences in the demographic conditions of an area can cause social inequality due to differences in community work productivity in each region.

5. Geographical Location and Conditions
The location and geographical conditions of Indonesia affect the level of development of a society. People who live in the lowlands generally find it easier to build a variety of infrastructure, while people who live in the highlands need a long time and process of development because of constrained natural conditions that are uphill and uneven. Declining income per capita.
Unequal development between regions.
Low social mobility.
Pollution of the Natural Environment.

6. Poverty
According to Lewis (1983), a culture of poverty can manifest in a variety of historical contexts, but is more likely to grow and develop in a society that has a set of conditions:
(1) Money economic system, wage labor and production system for profit
(2) the high unemployment and underemployment rates for unskilled workers
(3) low labor costs
(4) the failure of low-income groups to increase their social, economic and political organizations voluntarily or on government initiatives
(5) the bilateral family system is more prominent than the unilateral system, and
(6) the strength of a set of values in the ruling class that emphasizes the accumulation of wealth and the possibility of vertical mobility, and economical attitude, as well as the assumption that the low economic status as a result of personal inability or basically already low position.
Culture of poverty is not only an adaptation to a set of objective conditions of the wider community, once the culture has grown, it tends to perpetuate itself from generation to generation through its influence on children. Culture of poverty tends to develop when economic and social systems that are multi-layered are damaged or changed, Poverty culture is also a result of colonialism, that is, the economic and social structure of the indigenous people is broken down, while the status of indigenous groups is maintained low, it can also grow in the process of tribal abolition. The culture of poverty tends to be owned by the community as well as lower social, isolated communities, and victims who come from landless agricultural laborers.
According to Parker Seymour and Robert J. Kleiner (1983) the formulation of a culture of poverty includes the understanding that everyone involved in the situation has low aspirations as a form of realistic adaptation.

Some characteristics of poverty culture are:
(1) fatalism,
(2) low levels of aspiration,
(3) low willingness to pursue goals,
(4) not seeing personal progress,
(5) feelings of helplessness / inadequacy,
(6) Feelings to always fail,
(7) Feelings of self-evaluation are negative,
(8) Choice of position as a manual worker, and
(9) A sad level of compromise.

Relating to culture as a function of adaptation, it is an undertaking
to change these unwanted values in a direction that is in line with the values of the middle class, by using psychiatric methods of social-educational welfare without first (or simultaneously) trying to significantly change the reality of reality. social structures (income, employment, housing, and cultural patterns limit the scope of social participation and distribution of social power) will tend to fail. Culture of poverty does not originate from ignorance, but rather functions for adjustment.
Structural poverty according to Selo Sumarjan (1980) is poverty that is suffered by a group of people because the social structure of the community cannot participate in using the income sources that are actually available to them. Structural poverty is an atmosphere of poverty experienced by a community whose main cause is derived from the social structure, and therefore can be sought at the social structure that applies in the community itself.

Social Inequality: Definition and Causes

Social Inequality: Definition and Causes
Social inequality is something that is a job for governments that need more attention. Social inequality that occurs in society is very striking and increasingly alarming that needs to be discussed and searched for the causes of a social inequality. Social gaps that arise in society need a courage in disclosure.
Education is the most highlighted thing, because it is through education that change begins. The creation of young people who have the ability of science with knowledge that can carry out development in all fields is a common reason why education becomes so important.
The irony that actually happens with education in our country that is so broad is that education is not evenly distributed throughout the archipelago. In this era of intense development, disparities are still being felt by regions in Indonesia that are far from the reach of the central government. For more details about social inequality in full let us see the review below below.

social inequality What is meant by social inequality?
Social inequality is defined as inequality or inequality of access to obtain or utilize available resources. Resources can be in the form of primary needs, such as education, health, housing, business and work opportunities, can be in the form of secondary needs, such as means of business development, means of struggle for human rights, facilities for political channels, fulfillment of career development, and others.

Understanding Social Gaps According to Experts
According to the Badruzaman Century (2009: 284) social inequality is a social imbalance in society that makes a very striking difference. Or it can also be interpreted a situation where the rich have a higher position and more powerful than the poor.
According to Soerjono Soekanto, social inequality is a mismatch between elements of culture or society, which endangers the lives of social groups.
As a functional structural theorist, Emile Durkheim tends to see social inequality as a differentiation of functions in an inevitable social structure.
Max Weber, theorist of social action will assess social inequality as a result of differences in the interests of each individual expressed in the system of behavior and action.

Factors Causing Social Inequality
1. Differences in Natural Resources
Natural resources are closely related to the economic level of a region. If it can utilize natural resources properly, the economic rate of a region will increase, and vice versa, the economic level of a region is low if the community cannot utilize natural resources optimally.

2. Government Policy
Sometimes government policies can cause social inequality. for example policies on transmigration programs. When migrants move forward faster than native residents, social inequality can occur. The imbalance occurs because there is inequality between the two groups that should be able to develop together.

3. Effects of Globalization
People who are able to respond to globalization appropriately will be able to utilize globalization to achieve progress. Meanwhile, people who are not able to properly utilize globalization will not be able to take the opportunities offered by globalization. even left behind.

Social Research: Definition and Methods

Social Research: Definition and Methods
Social Research: Definition, Definition, Method, Purpose, Characteristics and Elements
Social research is a term used for investigations designed to increase social science, or social practice. This term refers to relationships between people, groups, families, institutions (schools, communities, organizations, etc.), and the larger environment.

What is meant by social research methods?
Definition of Social Research
Social phenomena are the subject of social research. Topics related to social phenomena can concern individuals (for example, job satisfaction), groups (for example, leadership), Society (for example, social structure), intuition (for example, organizational climate), and the wider environment such as the state (for example, national economic growth).
If so, research on the relationships between and among people, groups, institutions, or the wider environment is called social research. Social research is a type of research carried out by social scientists to answer questions on various social aspects so that we can understand it.

Social Research Methods
The social research method is a method used in carrying out an activity that can be divided into two, namely quantitative and qualitative research methods. Both have different methods from each other. But certainly in the process, the preparation explains the techniques and also the research procedures carried out.

Social Research Objectives
Finding a new knowledge in a particular field, testing the truth of knowledge in an existing field, developing existing knowledge, and writing a scientific work such as making a dissertation, thesis and thesis.

Characteristics of Social Research
Social research also has characteristics as explained by Soedjono Dirdjosisworo as follows:
Systematic means the discussion is arranged regularly, sequentially according to the system.
Logical means in accordance with logic, reasonable, correct according to analysis.
Empirical means obtained from experience, discovery, observation.
Methodist means based on a method whose truth is recognized by reasoning.
General means generalizing, encompassing the whole not only involving the specific.
Accumulative means to continue to grow, increasingly developed, dynamic.

Elements of Social Research
Important elements of the philosophy that underlies social research as a scientific activity, are:
Thought (intellectual activity)
Interpretation (looking for essential meaning)
Objects (All facts and symptoms)
Method (By way of reflection, methodical, systematic)
Purpose (For people's happiness)

Systematics Review Structure

Systematics Review Structure
Focusing Techniques
This technique is concerned with focusing on one particular aspect that is presented in the object reviewer. Concentration must remain based on something that stands out, and attract attention.
The part that is considered prominent can lie in the aspect of the theme, the method of discussion used by the author, the outer cover, the author's figure, the style of presentation, or the background of the book's publication.

Comparing Techniques
This technique invites a reviewer to make comparisons of things contained in the reviewer object with other sources on similar topics. Comparisons can be made on the basis of the same topic or theme from different authors or the same author on different topics.
This technique is not possible without reading activities. The reviewer must read several different sources. The richer the percentages of reading, the richer the insights that can be used as input for the depth of comparison. The reviewer can find the strengths or weaknesses contained in a book. Therefore, reading some of the reading sources becomes something very important in determining the quality of your reviewer.

Systematics Review structure
usually follows the following pattern:
Title of reviewer
The title of this reviewer must attract the reader
Changable (identity of the book) includes:
book title
Author / author's name
Publisher name and year of publication
Number of pages
Font type
Cover page
Price of the book (may or may not be listed)
Opening, opening paragraph. Includes:
Descriptions, descriptions, summaries, which explain the general contents of the book
Excerpts from parts that make the book clear
Relation to the context of the current situation in the community
Angry to attract the attention of readers
Discussion, containing comments, reviews, critical analysis, and assessment of the contents of the book. This is the essence of a reviewer, namely the reviewer commenting on or evaluating a book from various aspects, namely the external and content aspects, including:

Analysis of the contents of the book is accompanied by reasons and evidence contained in the contents of the book
Analysis of strengths and weaknesses (if any) of the content of the book that is reviewed by comparison with different sources
The writer's ideas about the contents of the book
Closing, including the review writer's assessment of whether or not the reviewer should read or own the book. This concluding sentence is more of a recommendation for the reader, although sometimes it is not stated in detail.
The identity of the reviewer is often included at the end of the reviewer to show the reviewer's authority.

Benefits of Review
1. Material consideration
To give an idea to the readers about a work and to influence them on the work.

2. Economic value
To get money or rewards from books that are freely licensed from book publishers if the review is published in a newspaper or magazine.

3. Means of book promotion
The books that are being reviewed are new books that have never been reviewed. therefore, the reviewer is a medium to promote the new book.

4. Creativity Development
To develop a creativity in writing, in making a book review must have an element so that the review is clear and of good quality.

Tips for writing a reviewer
Review writings that describe a book / film must be in accordance with the complete contents. Therefore, the main requirement for a reviewer is that the reviewer must first read / watch and understand the book / film to be reviewed.
Do a sharp and reasoned analysis. First, observe the benefits. Where does the book benefit the reader and include the evidence and why.
Use language that is structured, straightforward and clear so that it makes it easy for readers to understand your writing. The use of long, long-winded sentences will obscure the message conveyed. Choose the right and appropriate words to compile your reviewer's writing.

Reviewers
At first the novel was just honi writing and always wanted to try new things. The author began writing at the time of junior high school which had not yet been completed and had stopped several years, until the writer had the desire to continue writing again during high school. The story in this novel is the imagination of the writer himself. This paper was later blamed on one of the publishers, then unexpectedly published his novel and became a best seller novel in 2005. This novel was also appointed to the big screen in 2007.

Types of Book Reviews

Types of Book Reviews
Book data
Book data is usually organized as follows:
Title of book (if the book includes a translated book, the original title must also be written)
Author (if available, also write translator, editor or editor as stated in the book)
Publisher
Year of publication along with the print (what number of copies)
Book thickness (how many pages)
Book price (if needed)
Opening (lead)
Opening can be started with the following things.

Introducing the author, what forms of work, and achievements.
Comparing with similar books that have been written, both by the author himself and other authors.
Describe the uniqueness or figure of the author.
Describe the uniqueness of the book.
Formulate the theme of the book.
Expressing criticism of the weaknesses of the book.
Express the impression of the book.
Introducing the publisher.

The body or content of the book reviewer's questions
Body or contents
Book reviewer questions usually include the following:
Synopsis or book content correctly and chronologically.
A brief review of the book with sufficient quotations.
Excellence of the book.
Weakness of the book.
Formulation of the book framework.
Language review (easy or convoluted).
Print error (if any)
Concluding reviewer
The closing part, usually contains suggestions or questions that the book is important for who and why.

Review function
Informative function, which is to inform the existence of a particular book or film so that the reader feels interested to find out more
Commercial function, i.e. promoting new products for commercial purposes (material benefits)
Academic functions, namely interactions between book writers, translators, editors, and reviewers in shaping scientific discourse as well as various experiences and perspectives on certain topics that are the focus of the reviewer.

Types of Types of Reviews
Based on the content of the presentation or the contents of the reviewer, the book reviewer is classified into:
Informative review
The informative review only contains information about important things from a book. in general, the content of the informative review is only a summary and presentation of what the contents of the book are or matters relating to a book.

Evaluative reviewer
Evaluative reviews mostly present assessment assessments about the contents of the book or matters relating to the book. Information about the contents of the book is only presented at a glance, sometimes it is only used as an illustration.

Review informative - evaluative
The informative-evaluative review is a combination of the two types of reviewer. This type of reviewer besides presenting a kind of book summary or important things in the book also presents a review of the contents of the book. the third type of reviewer is said to be the most ideal because it can provide adequate reports and considerations.

Stage and Techniques for Making a Review
There are three types of book review techniques that can be done, namely:
a) Cutting and Glueing Techniques
Reviewing a book with this technique means sticking together pieces of writing. The piece is in the form of material that interests you contained in the book that you will review. In addition to the material part that attracts attention, the cut section should reflect the core ideas of the author of the book. Collection of pieces of material that have been selected, then arranged and arranged into a logical arrangement.
This process is called the attachment or attachment stage. What must be maintained in this process is the unity and cohesion of ideas between one piece and another. Strive for your reviewer as if to present the author in presenting his ideas. Your role in the review is only in the context of connecting, flowing and linking ideas to one another.
Regarding your impressions and views of the object reviewer must be reflected in the title. In addition, you can enter your impressions and opinions in sentences / paragraphs in the conclusions section. This technique is the simplest technique in practicing writing a reviewer.

Definition and Elements of Review

Definition and Elements of Review
Review Is: Definition, Elements, Systematics, Types, And Examples - Review ?? What is that reviewer ?? Licensing a book is an activity of reading, understanding, analyzing, evaluating, and revealing the strengths and weaknesses of a book as information for others (Sitepu, 2013). The results of the book review process are called book reviews.

Definition of General Review
The word reviewer comes from the Dutch "recensie" which means to talk and rate / beorordelend en bespoken. From this meaning, the Dutch print media provides a special page or column as a forum for discussion of this book (Lasa, 2006).

Definition of Review According to Experts
According to Sitepu (2013), etymologically examined from Latin (recensere or revidere) and English (review), the reviewer contains the basic meaning of "checking, observing, reviewing or reviewing" something. With this basic understanding, the object of review is not only limited to books but can be in the form of films, drama, exhibitions, and various forms / appearance of writing.
According to (Gorys Keraf, 1994; 274) - Review is defined as a writing or commentary on the value of a work or book.
According to Yus Rusyana (1996: 1) - provides a definition that the reviewer is writing about books of knowledge, literature, dictionaries, encyclopedias, and so on which summarize, describe, explain, and assess books
In the Big Indonesian Dictionary / KBBI (1991) reviews are considerations or discussions of books, or reviews of books that have just been published. Whereas Gorys Keraf defines reviewer as "A writing or commentary on the value of a work or book" (Keraf, 2001). From this understanding comes another term from the word reviewer, namely the word book consideration, book discussion, and book review.

Terms for Reviewing
There are several conditions in preparing a review, among others:
There are data books, including the name of the author, publisher, year of publication and book thickness.
The introduction contains a comparison with previous work, author biography, or matters relating to the theme or content.
There is a brief review of the book.
It must be useful and to whom it is intended.

Review Objectives
Reviewing a book has the following objectives:
In order to be able to provide a comprehensive understanding & information to a community or the reader, about the contents of the book that his reviewer.
Inviting the reader to discuss and think further about what issues are raised in the book.
In order to give a consideration to the reader about whether or not the book should be read or published.
In order to provide an answer to a question from the reader when a new book is published.
Give suggestions to the reader, whether a book or film is worth reading or watching
Describe and describe their opinions through a judgment or assessment
Provide clear criteria in expressing his opinion.

Elements of Review
The elements in the review include:

Title of reviewer
The title of the reviewer who is interesting and truly animates the entire writing or the essence of the writing, does not have to be determined in advance. The title can be created after the review writing is complete. To remember, the title of the reviewer must be aligned with the overall contents of the reviewer.

Understanding Molecular History

Understanding Molecular History
Although the presence of molecules has been accepted by many chemists since the early 19th century, there are some disagreements among physicists such as Mach, Boltzmann, Maxwell, and Gibbs, who see molecules as a mathematical conception. Perrin's work on Brownian motion (1911) is considered the final proof to convince scientists of the molecule.
Likewise, the definition of molecules has changed along with the development of knowledge about molecular structure. Molecules as the smallest particles of chemicals that still maintain their composition and chemical properties. This definition is often applied because many material resources such as rock, salt, and metal consist of a network of atoms and ions which are chemically bound and not composed of discrete molecules.

Understanding Molecules
Most molecules are too small to be seen with the naked eye. Exceptions are contained in DNA which can reach macroscopic size. The smallest molecule is diatomic hydrogen (H2), with an overall length of about twice the binding molecule (0.74 Å). A single molecule usually cannot be monitored using light, but can be detected using an atomic microscope.
Very large molecules, called macromolecules or supermolecules. The effective radius of the molecule is observed for the size of the molecule in solution.

Molecular Size
Most molecules are very small to be seen with the naked eye. Exceptions are found in DNA which can reach macroscopic size. The smallest molecule is diatomic hydrogen (H2), with the whole molecule about twice the bond length (0.74 Å). A single molecule usually cannot be monitored using light, but can be detected using an atomic force microscope. Very large molecules are called macromolecules or supermolecules. Effective molecular radius is the size of a molecule that is monitored in solution.

Molecular Formula
Empirical compound formulas show the simplest elemental comparison values of these compounds. For example, water always has a ratio value of hydrogen oxygen atoms compared to 2: 1. Ethanol also always has a ratio value of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen 2: 6: 1.
However, this formula does not indicate the shape or arrangement of atoms in a molecule. For example, dimethyl ether also has the same value as the ethanol ratio. Molecular constituents with the same atomic number but different arrangements are referred to as isomers.
It should be noted that the empirical formula only gives a comparative value of the constituent atoms in a molecule, and does not provide the true value of the number of atoms. The molecular formula describes the number of atoms that make up the right molecule. For example, acetylene has the molecular formula C2H2, but the CH formula is empirical. Molecular mass can be calculated from chemical formulas. Often the molecular mass expressed in atomic mass units is equal to 1/12 of the carbon-12 atomic mass.

Molecular Geometry
Geometrically shaped molecules remain in a state of equilibrium. The bond length and bond angle will continue to vibrate through vibrational and rotational motion. Chemical formula and molecular structure are two important factors that determine the properties of a compound.
Isomer compounds have the same chemical formula but different properties for different structures. Stereoisomer is an isomer which has physical and chemical properties which are very similar in biochemical but different activities.

Gel Electrophoresis and Molecular Sciences

Gel Electrophoresis and Molecular Sciences
Gel electrophoresis is one of the main techniques in molecular biology. The basic principle of this technique is that DNA, RNA, or protein can be separated by an electric field. In this case, the molecules are separated based on their rate of movement by the electromotive force in the gel matrix.
The primers are single-stranded oligonucleotides whose sequences are designed complementary to the end of the DNA fragment to be copied; The primary determines the beginning and end of the area to be copied. The last step is the elongation, which is the elongation of the primer into a new DNA strand by the DNA polymerase enzyme.
The temperature at this stage depends on the type of DNA polymerase used. Eventually, one PCR cycle will double the number of printed DNA or target DNA molecules, because each new synthesized thread will act as a template for the next cycle.
The rate of displacement depends on the size of the molecule concerned. Gel electrophoresis is usually performed for analytical purposes, but can also be used as a preparative technique for purifying molecules before being used in other methods such as mass spectrometry, PCR, cloning, DNA sequencing, or immuno-blotting which are further characterization methods.
The gel used is usually a crosslinked polymer (crosslinked) whose porosity can be adjusted as needed. To separate small proteins or nucleic acids (DNA, RNA, or oligonucleotides), the gel used is usually a polyacrylamide gel, made with different concentrations between acrylamide and substances that allow cross-linking, resulting in polyacrylamide networks of different sizes cavities vary. To separate larger nucleic acids (greater than several hundred bases), the gel used is agarose (from seaweed extract) which has been purified.
In the electrophoresis process, a molecular sample is placed into a well in a gel placed in a buffer solution, and electricity is supplied to it. The sample molecules will move in the gel matrix in the direction of one of the electric poles according to their charge. In the case of nucleic acids, the direction of movement is towards the positive electrode, due to the natural negative charge on the sugar-phosphate frame it has
. To keep the rate of transfer of nucleic acids really only by size (ie length), substances such as sodium hydroxide or formamide are used to keep nucleic acids in a straight line. Meanwhile, the protein is denatured with detergent (eg sodium dodecyl sulfate, SDS) to make the protein straight and negatively charged.
After the electrophoresis process is completed, a staining process is carried out so that the separated sample molecules can be seen. Ethidium bromide, silver, or "Coomassie blue" (Coomassie blue) colorants can be used for this purpose. If the sample molecule glows in ultraviolet light (for example after it has been "stained" with ethidium bromide), the gel is photographed under ultraviolet light. If the sample molecule contains a radioactive atom, a gel autoradiogram is made.

Molecular Sciences
Molecules called molecular chemistry or molecular physics depend on the focus of research. Molecular chemistry deals with laws governing interactions between molecules, while molecular physics deals with laws that govern the structure and properties of molecules. In practice, the difference is that science is unclear and overlaps.
In molecular science, molecules consist of stable systems consisting of two or more molecules. Polyatomic ions can also sometimes be considered as charged molecules. The term unstable molecule is used to refer to a highly reactive chemical species.
After insertion into the cell, the protein encoded by the DNA fragment can be expressed by the cell in question. Various types of methods can be used to help the expression so that the relevant protein is obtained in large quantities, such as inducible promoters and specific cell-signaling factors. Large amounts of protein can then be extracted from the bacterial cells or eukaryotes.

Understanding Molecular Biology

Understanding Molecular Biology
Molecular Biology - Definition, Engineering, Science, History, Size, Formulas, Geometry: A molecule is defined as a group of atoms (at least two) that are connected to each other very strongly (covalently) in a certain arrangement and are neutral and fairly stable.

Understanding Molecules
Molecules are defined as groups of atoms (at least two) that are connected to each other very strongly (covalently) in a particular arrangement and are neutral and fairly stable. According to this definition, molecules are different from polyatomic ions. In organic chemistry and biochemistry, so organic molecules and biomolecules are filled also considered as molecules.
In the kinetic theory of gases, the term molecule is often used to refer to gases without depending on particle composition. According to this definition, noble gas atoms are considered molecules even though they consist of a single, unattached atom.
Molecules can consist of atoms of the same element (for example, oxygen O2), or can be composed of different elements (for example water H2O). Atoms and complexes connected by non-covalent (for example bound by hydrogen bonds and ionic bonds) are generally not considered as single molecules.

 Molecular biology techniques
 Expression Cloning
One of the basic techniques of molecular biology is expression cloning, which is used for example to study the function of proteins. In this technique, pieces of the DNA coding for the desired protein are transplanted into a plasmid (circular DNA normally found in bacteria; in this technique, plasmids are called expression vectors).
The plasmid which contains the desired piece of DNA can then be inserted into bacterial cells or animal cells. The insertion of DNA into bacterial cells is called transformation, and can be done by various methods, including electroporation, microinjection and chemistry. Insertion of DNA into eukaryotic cells, such as animal cells, is called transfection, and transfection techniques that can be performed include calcium phosphate transfection, liposome transfection, and with commercial reagents. DNA can also be inserted into cells by using a virus (called viral transduction).

Polymerase chain reaction (PCR)
Polymerase chain reaction ("polymerase chain [reaction]", PCR) is a very useful technique for making copies of DNA. PCR allows a small number of certain DNA sequences to be copied (millions of times) to be reproduced (so that they can be analyzed), or modified in certain ways. For example, PCR can be used to add restriction enzyme sites, or to mutate (change) certain bases in DNA. PCR can also be used to detect the presence of certain DNA sequences in a sample.
PCR utilizes the enzyme DNA polymerase which naturally plays a role in DNA propagation in the replication process. However, unlike in living organisms, the PCR process can only copy short fragments of DNA, usually up to 10 kb (kb = kilo base pairs = 1,000 base pairs). The fragment can be a single gene, or only part of a gene.
The PCR process for multiplying DNA involves a series of repetitive temperature cycles, and each cycle consists of three stages. The first stage is denaturation of DNA template (DNA template) at a temperature of 94-96 ° C, namely the separation of DNA double strands into two single strands. After that, a decrease in temperature in the second stage to 45-60 ° C allows annealing or hybridization between the primary oligonucleotide with a single strand of DNA mold.

Understanding Food Pyramid

Food Pyramid
Understanding Food Pyramid
Food pyramid is a general description that is related between biotic components in an ecosystem. Unlike the food chain, this food pyramid illustrates an interaction between biotic components more than just an eating and eating event in a food chain.
In an ecosystem, plants as producers have a larger population compared to other trophic levels. The number of producers is greater than consumers I, consumers II, consumers III and so on up to the top consumers. Based on these differences in population levels, a pyramid-shaped diagram can be drawn.
This pyramid illustrates the relationship between organisms at each trophic level. The relationship formed between an organism in a food pyramid is a cone, like a pyramid.
In a food and eating event or food chain that has been discussed earlier, it describes an interaction of predation between organisms in a straight line (linear). While in the food pyramid it shows a number of organisms in the trophic level of an ecosystem.

Types of food pyramid
The Following Are The Types Of Food Pyramid.
1. Population Pyramid
In this type of pyramid, one illustrates that organisms that occupy lower trophic levels have larger populations than organisms with higher trophic levels. The base of this pyramid is occupied by producers who have a larger population.
Meanwhile, the edges are inhabited by several top consumer individuals. And between the base and the end is occupied by several levels of consumers. The number of population of consumer I is greater than that of consumer II, and consumer II is greater than that of consumer III.
The population pyramid is referred to as a counterweight to the population of each organism. It is only natural for an organism to fall prey to a larger number than a predatory organism. Thus the source of food will never run out. if on the contrary the number of predators is greater, then what will happen is the extinction of an organism.

2. Biomass Pyramid
The biomass pyramid, as the name suggests, represents a mass mix of all organisms in a particular environment or habitat. Then the weight of each organism is measured in grams.
Measurement of biomass at each trophic level is based on the average weight of the organism by estimating the amount. This pyramid is more accurate in showing a quantitative relationship of biomass in an ecosystem.

There are two types of biomass pyramids, namely:
Upright Pyramid
i.e. a pyramid whose combined mass from all producers is greater than the combined mass of each level of consumers. The upright pyramid usually describes a terrestrial ecosystem.

Reverse Pyramid
that is, a type of pyramid describing the combined mass of its producers which is smaller than the combined mass of its consumers. Examples of these pyramids are aquatic ecosystems.

3. Energy Pyramid
In this energy pyramid there is a decrease in energy at each trophic level. The higher the trophic level, the smaller the amount of energy. which means, producers as the first trophic level who have greater energy compared to consumers at higher trophic levels. The decreasing amount of energy in each trophic is due to several reasons. Such as :
Only certain portions of food can be eaten by later trophic levels.
Not all food that is eaten can be digested but excreted into feces.
Some of the food that is eaten is digested into parts of the body of the organism,
while the rest is used as an energy source.
Why is the number of living creatures decreasing at a higher rate in a food pyramid?
The largest number of living things is found in producers who occupy the base of the pyramid.
Living creatures that occupy lower trophic levels are more numerous than living creatures that occupy higher trophic levels. This is illustrated by very large producers and the number of organisms decreases rapidly until only a few peak carnivorous individuals live.

Rankings in the Food Pyramid

Rankings in the Food Pyramid
Organisms at the first trophic level are usually the most abundant, while organisms at the second, third, and later trophic levels are increasingly reduced.
In normal communities, the number of plants is always greater than herbivorous organisms.
The number of herbivores is always greater than the number of level 1 carnivores. Carnivores of level 1 are also always more than level 2 carnivores.
In a balanced ecosystem the number of producers is greater than the number of level I consumers, the number of level II consumers is more than level III consumers, and so on. This is caused by loss of energy at every level of food. If the food chain is depicted from producers to high-level consumers, a food pyramid will form.
Food pyramid can also be used to predict population balance in an ecosystem. Increasingly, the population of the pyramid will reduce food.
In ecosystems there are often two or more consumers who occupy the top of the pyramid, so there is a food pyramid with one peak and a food pyramid with two peaks. A food pyramid with a peak means that there is only one type of carnivore that occupies the top of the pyramid (top consumer). Food pyramid with two peaks means that at the top of the pyramid is occupied by two types of carnivores which both do not eat each other.

Rankings in the Food Pyramid
The Indonesian version of the Food Pyramid consists of 5 levels of food and drink according to the needs of the human body and 1 level of the foundation of a healthy life such as regular exercise and maintaining an ideal body weight. The following is a picture of the Food Pyramid to maintain the balance of nutrients needed by our body


First level
First level or basic level is in the pyramid of healthy food is maintaining ideal body weight and regular exercise. Both of these elements greatly affect the quality of our healthy lives. One reason for the importance of sports is to use simple rules as below:
"Change in Body Weight is the same as incoming Calories reduced by outgoing Calories"
By exercising we can burn the calories we consume and keep the body at an ideal body weight. Eating more than you burn will cause you to gain fat and weight, leading to diseases associated with being overweight.

Second level
Water holds a very important role in the human body. In the human body, water functions as a cell-forming and body fluid, regulating body temperature, solvents of other nutrients and as an aid in the digestion process. In one day, our body needs 8 glasses of water, equivalent to 2 liters of water.

Third level
The third level is foods which are high carbohydrate sources such as Rice, Potatoes, Bread, Biscuits, Corn and Sweet Potatoes. These foods are usually referred to as staple foods which are usually consumed 3 to 8 servings a day.

Fourth level
The fourth level of the Food Pyramid is vegetables and fruits which are a source of fiber, vitamins and minerals. Vegetables should be consumed 3 to 5 servings while fruits can be consumed 2 to 3 servings a day.

Fifth Level
The fifth level is foods that are good sources of protein, vegetable protein and animal protein. Vegetable Protein is a protein derived from plants such as beans and processed foods (tempeh, tofu).
While Animal Protein is Protein obtained from animals such as beef, fish, chicken, eggs and milk products. Protein foods (vegetable and animal) should be consumed 2 to 3 servings every day.

Highest Level (Peak)
The highest level or peak position are foods whose consumption level must be limited. This is because the level of need for these foods is very low. These foods include salt, sugar and oil.

Examples of the Food Pyramid
Phytoplankton
that is, as a producer because in these plankton waters it can photosynthesize and produce a food reserve.

Fish
that is, as consumers of level 1 water, fish will eat all phytoplankton as food.

Seals
that is, as a level 2 consumer in the waters, these seals will eat fish as food.

killer whale
namely as a consumer level 3 or final level, one of the food is seal. So this type of whale can be classified as a final consumer.